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Growing Green

Animal-Free Organic Techniques

by Jenny Hall, Iain Tolhurst

Table of Contents

Contents

Chapter 1 - Introduction to stockfree-organic systems

• 1.1 Introduction 1

• 1.2 Defining sustainability 1

• 1.3 Defining stockfree 2

• 1.4 Are animal inputs necessary in organic systems? 2

• 1.5 Defining organic 3

• 1.6 Wider principles for sustainable food production 4

• 1.7 Food sufficiency 6

• 1.8 Are plant-based diets suitable for people? 7

• 1.9 Fossil fuel use in agriculture 7

• 1.10 The economic cost of current agricultural policies 7

• 1.11 Local food 8

• 1.12 Conclusion 9

Chapter 2 – Soil protection

• 2.1 Understanding soil protection 10

• 2.2 Soil structure and physical components 12

• 2.3 Recommended practice - adding plant-based compost to soil 13

• 2.4 Recommended practice - green manure leys 15

• 2.4.1 Incorporating a green manure with machinery 16

• 2.4.2 Incorporating a green manure by hand 16

• 2.4.3 Avoiding nitrogen lock-up 17

• 2.4.4 Green manure leys and zero tillage 17

• 2.5 Recommended practice - overwintering green manures 18

• 2.6 Recommended practice - undersowing green manures 18

• 2.7 Recommended practice - timing cultivation 19

• 2.7.1 Suitable soil conditions 19

• 2.7.2 Primary cultivations using tractor-mounted machinery 20

• 2.7.3 Secondary cultivations using tractor-mounted machinery 21

• 2.7.4 Consolidating the seedbed with a tractor-pulled roller 22

• 2.7.5 Cultivations using pedestrian-operated machinery 22

• 2.7.6 Consolidating the seedbed with a hand-pulled roller 22

• 2.8 Recommended practice - preventing panning 23

• 2.9 Recommended practice - keeping the soil permanently covered 25

• 2.10 Recommended practice - minimising tillage 27

Chapter 3 - Soil fertility

• 3.1 Understanding soil fertility 29

• 3.2 Role of plants in fertility 30

• 3.3 Plant nutrients 31

• 3.3.1 Managing nitrogen 34

• 3.3.2 Recovering P and K 35

• 3.4 Recommended plant-based composts 36

• 3.5 Recommended - cut and mulched green manure strips, areas or leys 38

• 3.5.1 Legumes for building nitrogen 39

• 3.5.2 Carbon-rich green manures for building humus 40

• 3.5.3 Green manures for all occasions 40

• 3.5.4 Sowing a green manure ley using machinery 44

• 3.5.5 Sowing a green manure area by hand 44

• 3.5.6 Mowing a green manure ley - “cut and mulch” technique 44

• 3.5.7 Green manure strips for fertility 46

• 3.5.8 Planting mature transplants into permanent swards of clover 47

• 3.5.9 Overwinter green manures for fertility 47

• 3.5.10Undersowing green manures for fertility 48

• 3.6 Recommended - Compost or hay made from green manures grown on the registered holding 50

• 3.7 Plant-based materials for fertility from outside the registered holding 53

• 3.7.1 Greenwaste 55

• 3.7.2 Leafmould 56

• 3.7.3 Ungrazed upland meadows 57

• 3.7.4 Hay bales from conventional farming systems 57

• 3.7.5 Straw bales from conventional farming systems 57

• 3.7.6 Plant wastes and by-products from food processing industries 57

• 3.7.7 Self-collected seaweed 58

• 3.8 Chipped branch wood and soil fertility 58

• 3.9 Supplementary nutrient fertilisers 61

• 3.10 Mineral amendments 65

• 3.11 Prohibited materials for fertility 69

Chapter 4 - Composting procedures

• 4.1 Introduction 71

• 4.2 Recommended – composting plant-based materials and leafmould separately 73

• 4.3 Recommended - mixing plant-based ingredients 75

• 4.4 Recommended – building a heap of sufficient volume 79

• 4.5 Recommended - turning the heap to assist with aeration 79

• 4.6 Recommended – monitoring temperature rises 81

• 4.7 Recommended - covering the heap or windrow 83

• 4.8 Risk Assessments 84

• 4.9 Prohibited practices for composting 86

Chapter 5 – Propagation

• 5.1 Introduction 88

• 5.2 Recommended practice - Stockfree-Organic seed 88

• 5.3 Recommended practice - Stockfree-Organic propagating composts 89

• 5.3.1 Traditional growing media mixes 90

• 5.3.2 Alternative base fertilisers to blood, fish and bone (BF&B) 91

• 5.3.3 Manufacturers of fertilisers suitable for propagation 93

• 5.3.4 Alternatives to peat 94

• 5.3.5 Raising transplants 95

• 5.3.6 Blocking transplants 101

• 5.3.7 Planting out by machine 101

• 5.3.8 Heeling in bare-root transplants 103

• 5.3.9 Planting out by hand 103

• 5.4 Recommended practice - Bare root transplants 104

• 5.5 Permitted practice - Organically grown seed and direct sowing 105

• 5.6 Permitted practice – Organically grown vegetative reproductive 107

• 5.7 Permitted practice - Commercially available Stockfree-Organic composts 108

• 5.8 Restricted materials 108

• 5.9 Prohibited materials 109

Chapter 6 – Rotations

• 6.1 Defining rotations 111

• 6.2 Field scale rotations for staple and bulky crops 114

• 6.3 Garden crop rotation in the walled garden at Tolhurst Organic Produce 119

• 6.4 Protected cropping rotation 119

• 6.5 Traditional four course rotation 122

• 6.6 Beyond the rotation towards polyculture 122

• 6.7 Organic Growers of Durham strip rotational system 123

Chapter 7 – Weed control

• 7.1 Introduction 124

• 7.2 The principles of weeding 126

• 7.3 Recommended – stale seedbed techniques 128

• 7.4 Recommended - Pre-emergence and post-emergence operations 129

• 7.4.1 Hand hoeing 129

• 7.4.2 Ploughing 130

• 7.4.3 Common implements for inter-row weeding with tractors 131

• 7.4.4 Harrowing and rotovating 132

• 7.4.5 Topping 134

• 7.4.6 Hand weeding 134

• 7.5 Recommended - Pre-germination, propagation and transplanting 135

• 7.6 Recommended - Green manure leys 136

• 7.7 Recommended - Undersowing crops with green manures e.g. clover 137

• 7.8 Recommended - Mulches of straw and hay 138

• 7.9 Recommended - Alternating weed suppressing with weed susceptible crops 139

• 7.10 Ensuring composting reaches at least 60°C 140

• 7.11 Permitted practices – use of plastic mulches 140

• 7.12 Restricted practice - routine use of plastic mulches 141

• 7.13 Restricted practice – flame weeding 142

• 7.14 Prohibited – The use of any herbicide 142

Chapter 8 – Pests and diseases

• 8.1 Introduction

• 8.1.1 Encouraging beneficial insects

• 8.1.2 Encouraging beneficial creatures

• 8.2 Recommended - Balanced rotational cropping 144

• 8.3 Recommended - Dividing up large fields with hedgerows 145

• 8.4 Recommended - Dividing up large fields with trees 147

• 8.5 Recommended - Providing permanent predator belts 150

• 8.5.1 Beetle banks 151

• 8.5.2 Nettle strips 151

• 8.5.3 Wildflower meadow strips 152

• 8.5.4 Perennial and biennial flowering plants and shrubs 153

• 8.5.5 Overwinter hibernation 154

• 8.6 Recommended - Providing annual predator belts by leaving uncultivated areas 154

• 8.7 Recommended - Planting attractant species of flowers 156

• 8.8 Recommended - Companion planting and mixed cropping 159

• 8.9 Recommended - Undersowing e.g. white clover under brassicas 159

• 8.10 Recommended - Installing some body of non-running water 160

• 8.11 Recommended - Compost 160

• 8.12 Recommended - Appropriate choice of crop varieties 161

• 8.13 Recommended - The use of strategic planting dates 162

• 8.14 Recommended - Good husbandry and hygienic practices 164

• 8.15 Recommended - Physical barriers 165

• 8.16 Common competing molluscs and insects 166

• 8.17 Common disease problems 167

• 8.18 Restricted - Natural pesticides, insecticides and biological controls 168

• 8.19 Restricted - Ducks which are kept to eat slugs and snails 169

• 8.20 Prohibited practices for diseases, insects and mollusc control 174

• 8.21 Introduction to competing animal and bird control 178

• 8.22 Recommended - Attracting natural predators 179

• 8.23 Recommended - Fencing 179

• 8.24 Recommended - Electric fencing 180

• 8.25 Recommended - Netting and wire mesh 180

• 8.26 Recommended - Sonic repellents 181

• 8.27 Recommended - Raptor models and balloons 182

• 8.28 Recommended - Scarecrows 182

• 8.29 Recommended - Sealed containers for the produce 183

• 8.30 Restricted - Trapping 184

• 8.31 Restricted - Dogs or cats 184

• 8.32 Prohibited practices for competing animal and bird control 185

Chapter 9 – Environmental conservation

• 9.1 Introduction 189

• 9.2 Statutory and Stockfree-Organic Standard obligations 190

• 9.3 Recommended - Leaving an undisturbed field margin 192

• 9.4 Recommended - Leaving strips of undisturbed vegetation 192

• 9.5 Recommended - Planting attractant species 193

• 9.6 Recommended - Planting or encouraging indigenous flora 195

• 9.7 Recommended - Installation of bird and bat boxes and winter feeding stations 196

• 9.8 Recommended - Avoiding the disturbance of ground nesting birds 196

• 9.9 Recommended - Mowing from the centre of the field outwards 197

• 9.10 Recommended - Timing mowing operations to allow wildflowers to set seed 197

• 9.11 Recommended - Allowing natural regeneration 198

• 9.12 Recommended - Maintaining hedges and ditches 198

• 9.13 Recommended - Reinstating hedges where appropriate 199

• 9.14 Recommended - Practising agroforestry techniques 200

• 9.15 Recommended - Replanting indigenous shrubs and trees 202

• 9.16 Recommended - Coppicing and other traditional management 202

• 9.17 Recommended - Tree planting and fencing newly planted trees 203

• 9.18 Recommended - Hedge trimming and ditch clearance between January and February 204

• 9.19 Recommended - Clearing ditches in phased operations 204

• 9.20 Recommended - Maintaining and creating water bodies 205

• 9.21 Recommended practices relating to farm buildings 206

• 9.22 Restricted - Removal of hedgerows, banks or ditches 207

• 9.23 Restricted - Removal of trees 207

• 9.24 Prohibited practices that are harmful to environmental conservation 207

Chapter 10 – Environmental Accounting

• 10.1 Introduction to environmental benefits or organic farming 209

• 10.2 Recommended practices 210

• 10.3 Prohibited practices - pollution 212

• 10.4 Energy accounting to measure environmental impact 216

• 10.4.1 Background 216

• 10.4.2 Input / output analysis of energy use 217

• 10.4.3 Calculating inputs 219

• 10.4.4 Should an energy value be assigned to labour inputs? 222

• 10.4.5 Calculating the harvest output 223

• 10.4.6 Food miles analysis 224

Chapter 10 – UK vegetable crops

• 11.1 Field scale solanaceae - Potatoes 227

• 11.2 Protected Solanaceae – Tomatoes, aubergines and peppers 230

• 11.3 Field scale brassicas 236

• 11.4 Protected brassica salad leaves 241

• 11.5 Crucifers – Swede, kohl rabi, turnip, radish, mooli 243

• 11.6 Field scale alliums – Leeks and onions 246

• 11.7 Intensively grown alliums 250

• 11.8 Field scale umbellifers – Carrots and parsnips 251

• 11.9 Intensively grown umbellifers – Celery, celeriac, fennel 254

• 11.10 Field scale curcubits – Courgettes, marrows and squashes 257

• 11.11 Protected curcubits – Cucumbers and melons 259

• 11.12 Field scale edible grasses - Sweetcorn 262

• 11.13 Legumes – Beans and Peas 265

• 11.14 Chenopods – Beetroot, spinach, chard 269

• 11.15 Lettuce 272

• 11.16 Protected non-brassica salad leaves 277

Chapter 12 – Season extension and crop storage

• 12.1 Spring and autumn season extension 281

• 12.2 Soil fertility 282

• 12.3 Transplant raising from January to March 283

• 12.4 Warming the soil through cultural practices 287

• 12.5 Warming the soil with plastic mulches 288

• 12.6 Warming the soil with paper mulches 288

• 12.7 Season extension in a greenhouse 288

• 12.8 Season extension in a polytunnel 289

• 12.9 Fleece protection 289

• 12.10 Air circulation and disease prevention 290

• 12.11 Extending storage life of vegetables through removing field heat 291

• 12.12 Curing vegetables before storage 291

• 12.14 Storage clamps and ambient barn storage 293

• 12.15 Optimum conditions for storage vegetables 294

Chapter 13 – The marketing of stockfree-organic produce

• 13.1 Conversion Periods 295

• 13.2 Why direct marketing 295

• 13.3 Selling to the wholesale market 296

• 13.4 Direct selling to restaurants, schools and shops 297

• 13.5 Farmers’ markets 297

• 13.6 Farm shops 298

• 13.7 Share schemes and box schemes 300

• 13.8 Tips for a successful CSA 302

• 13.9 Budgeting for a CSA 303

• 13.10 Case studies 304

• 13.11 Need for pyramid structures within direct marketing 308

Chapter 14 Conclusion 310

Appendix 312